Dystrophin and utrophin are related structural, Actin-binding proteins that are involved in anchoring the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane. Dystrophin is the protein product of the Duchenne/Becker muscular dystrophy gene. Dystrophin expression is found in muscle and brain tissues, where it is localized to the inner surface of the plasma membrane. It has been speculated that alternative splicing of the carboxy terminus allows dystrophin to interact with a variety of proteins. Research has shown that the loss of dystrophin-associated proteins in Duchenne afflicted muscle is due to the absence of dystrophin rather than to muscle degradation and that the lack of dystrophin results in the loss of linkage between the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. Evidence suggests that the upregulation of utrophin can reduce the dystrophic pathology.